Editor Notes:
Editorial notes:
Shai’s interest in the French Revolution is likely driven by his study of classical philosophers and his desire to better understand the period in which they lived and the impact it might have had on their philosophical views. The specific reference to the French Revolution starts in his review of Edmund Burke’s “Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful” and is further referred to in a later review of the philosopher Thomas Paine.
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First popularized to the British by Thomas Carlyle (in 1837), and whose work was the direct source for Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities.
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Its legacy includes much of Europe’s property laws and metrication. And especially as a symbol, and in its language, inspired and was the basis for some of the major human right declarations (e.g. of the UN and Europe).
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For the bicentennial French celebrations, Thatcher gave Mitterrand a copy of Dickens’ work.
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Louis XV lost the Seven Years War, and despite 60% of the tax revenue needed for repaying loans, joined the Americans in their revolution (probably causing its victory), thus necessitating further loans.
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Parelements[I] were made popular by their practice of opposing new taxes (despite the nobles selfish motivations).
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Maupeou attempted to initiate reform by dismissing the parlements, but this (in combination with his attempts at debt consolidation) gave way to accusations of despotism, and so Loius XVI began his rule by restoring the parlements (and thus being limited to anodyne change).
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Parlements agreed to a 1/20th tax on real estate income in 1749, and doubled and tripled it (1756, 1760). But since the American War was sustained without new taxes, they saw no need for further or renewed taxes.
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See below regarding the war’s financing.
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France was absolutely ruled by its Monarch and in practice run also by his advisors (to whatever degree of adherence).
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The country was divided into 36 generalities, each run by an intendant, an omnicompetent executive agent.
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In some areas, taxation depended on the cooperation of estates, which were technically representative but not elective, and although without power to resist, could in the king’s name borrow low interest loans.
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Their work was constantly impeded by local courts of law, which were both administrative and judicial.
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13 parlements stood at the head of the judicial hierarchy, which could remonstrate against the king’s new laws, and increasingly would do so in printed pamphlets to gain common sympathies.
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There was no national administrative or judicial uniformity across territories, which varied widely in size.
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Offices (over 70,000) were all venal and hereditary and hence would need to be bought back by the crown if to be directly controlled or redistributed.
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The entire system was antithetical to reform, and generally obstructionist to any change.
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The clergy owned about a tenth of all land, was paid tithes and paid no taxes.
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The noble class owned over a quarter of all land, was paid feudal dues and resisted any direct tax on the rationale that they were the defence service.
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Consequentially taxes were paid by those that could not afford to avoid it.
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Louis XVI’s wife, Maria-Antoinette, was especially unpopular due to her Austrian birth (traditional enemies) and her famed extravagance (especially when exaggerated, e.g. the fictional call for the hungry to eat cake).
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France supported America in its war, both financially and in manpower.
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The Genevan banker, Jacques Necker, was hired as a consultant. He achieved financing by a modest surplus (achieved how?) to be used to improve credit ratings to be used to receive loans…
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…Thus it seemed that a war was fought without new taxes, making it practically impossible for Necker to attempt tax reform later.
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There was popular mistrust stemming from Louis XV’s renouncing and draconian consolidation of debts. This extended to mistrust of paper money, due to failures over the same period.
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Contemporary Physiocrats or Economists (the first to begin using this name), believed the following to be necessary for the nation’s finances to recover:
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True wealth is agricultural, while industry and finances are less important.
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Agriculture should be freed by removing unnecessary taxes (incl. feudal dues and tithes) and freeing the market (incl. removing the “Maximum”, i.e. price setting).
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These ideas were opposed by the nobles, guilds, and clergy, and hence the only persons vulnerable to these experiments were those too weak to oppose them.
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…Grain prices were allowed to rise, and export was unrestricted. The poor could afford to feed themselves less, and less money could be spent on other products. Furthermore, a year of shortfall resulted in famine and 1775 saw “flour war” riots.
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…Thus, when the harvest failed completely in 1788, the kingdom was denuded of stocks, and the inevitable starvation was shadowed by an absence of faith in any sort of royal protection or relief.
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Nor was there much faith in the clergy.
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First of all, there was disgust at their perceived maldistributed wealth, backed by their greed.
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The Church had already weakened itself by an internal battle between Jansenist and Jesuit groups, combined with varying interests, and resulting mid 18th in the expulsion of the latter.
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Improved literacy (to 1/3 of the population) meant that Paris had a daily newspaper, and reading societies were growing. Thus public opinion became more complicated if it was to be controlled by Lois XVI.
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Estate-General – developments and reason for support.
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Last convened in 1614. Three groups: Clergy (1st), Nobles (2nd), and the common (the Third Estate). Vote in turn, so that it was expected that the first two could always protect their interests.
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Calls began when Maupeou cancelled the parlements.
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The nearest equivalent to the representation seen in America and Britain, and endorsed by Enlightenment writers.
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Seen as a solution to institutional paralysis.
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Calonne (1783 finance minister) wanted to initiate a program of financial and administrative reform and economic stimulation but needed support. For this, he established an Assembly of Notables (Feb 87) to endorse his plans. First, the Notables disagreed that there was a looming crisis. Calonne was outmaneuvered and dismissed. A new leader of the Notables too failed. And increasingly this Assembly too was calling for an Estate-General to be called. The Assembly was dismissed (May 87). An attempt to pass the proposal through the parlements failed too.
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The crisis was highlighted by the failure of Louis XVI to defend his Dutch protectorate from Prussian invasion (Sep 87), as he could not afford to. I.e. France could not pay its international pretensions.
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May 88: Maupeou-like reforms and parlement remodelling attempted and failed. Effectively ignored amidst public uproar.
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Aug 88: Effective bankruptcy as treasury payments suspended.
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Necker recalled and calls for E-G to meet in 89.
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Necker: Made finance director general in 76, in 81 was blamed among the royal court for debt due to the American war, and retired in 81. Marie-Antoinette was his enemy. Produced first ever public publication of royal accounts (nb. raising them into public awareness).
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Beginning
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Low grain due to Calonne’s grain-libertarianism. Compounded by hailstorms destroying much of 89’s harvest.
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Unfairness to the third estate was becoming a popular issue, so Necker doubled its size (Dec 88).
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Met in Versailles on May 5 (1789).
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17 June: Following stalemate, the Third Estate went its own way, and established a “National Assembly”. The others would join in droves soon.
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20 June: Meet in a tennis court, famously after being locked out of their rooms by the monarch, where they promise to produce a constitution.
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12 July: By now Versailles was surrounded by troops, and now Necker was dismissed (nb. he was popular).
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14 July: Bastille stormed. Major social upheavals.
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4 Aug: In an attempt to avoid anarchy, feudal dues declared void. Soon, too removed, were all sort of privileges, venal offices, and tithes.
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26 Aug: Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.
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6 Oct: Following increasing troop arrival, etc., thousands of woman entered Versailles to remove the King and his party to Paris.
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Nb. at this time constitution aims for a system like Britain, i.e. no republicans
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2 Nov: Church lands appropriated to pay, esp. national debt.
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Jul-Nov 90: Lay priests to be elected, and furthermore, to provide an oath of obedience.
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91: Pope denounces the new constitution.
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Revolutionaries only accept “constitutional” priests, while counter-rev’s see their religion as under attack.
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Nb. expansion of “Jacobian” political and social clubs, pro-revolutionary.
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20 June 91: King et al attempt escape but are caught and disgraced and spiked calls for his dismissal.
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The introduction “extreme” republicanism introduced another schism.
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1791: The King accepts a new constitution, within which he is reinstated, and the N. Assembly steps down to make way for a new Legislative Assembly.
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20 April 1792: King declares war on the Habsburg empire (which he hopes to lose).
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Nb. war identified the revolution with national survival and implied “traitors” opposed both. E.g. the Prussian commander threated Paris’ destruction if the King was harmed, therefore the King was an enemy.
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10 Aug: Sansculottes and National Guard volunteers (féderés) attack King’s Tuileries Palace, who retreats to the L. Assembly, who vote to establish a republic (and to be replaced themselves by a National Convention).
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Sans-culottes = Without culottes (silk knee-high breeches were worn by the bourgeois), and instead, iconically, wore pants.
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At this stage, power resided with the Paris Commune, control of which was taken by the Jacobians
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In reaction to fear caused by Prussian major victories, the Commune recommended the establishment of local committees of vigilance. They were responsible this month for about 500 detentions, about half of which were non-constitutional priests (popularly suspected of supporting the enemy).
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Danton has been suspected as leading the uprising, given that it heralded his sudden rise within the Commune to the minister of justice.
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2 Sept: Beginning with a few mob massacres, and followed by summary trials. In all about 1,400 or half of Paris’ prisoners were killed. This is the September Massacre.
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Feared that prisoners would join the enemy when they invaded the cities.+
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Danton, a known demagogue, was at the time accused of responsibility here. But today there is no proof.
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20 Sept: Beginning of overwhelming French victories. Such that there were cries for the liberation of all of Europe.
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21 Sep: Convention takes over. Declares Year I.
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21 Jan 1793: Louis XVI executed.
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Danton: “You have thrown down your gauntlet, and this gauntlet is a king’s head.”
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Soon thereafter, France’s enemies are joined by Britain, Dutch, Spain, and some Italian states.
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Conscription meets opposition, where there is already resistance to persecution of priests. Counter-rebels consider themselves monarchist and Catholic.
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War starts going poorly. Reveals factions in Convention.
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