{"id":2875,"date":"2014-08-25T10:44:52","date_gmt":"2014-08-25T10:44:52","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/?p=2875"},"modified":"2019-07-26T04:26:58","modified_gmt":"2019-07-26T04:26:58","slug":"the-study-of-language-4th-edition-by-george-yule","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/2014\/08\/25\/the-study-of-language-4th-edition-by-george-yule\/","title":{"rendered":"The Study of Language (4th Edition) by George Yule"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"padding: 2px 6px 4px; color: #555555; background-color: #eeeeee; border: 2px solid #dddddd; text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 10pt;\"><strong>Editorial notes<\/strong>: <em>The content below is Shai&#8217;s summary of &#8220;The Study of Language&#8221; (4th Edition) by George Yule<\/em><a href=\"#_ftnI\" name=\"_ftnrefI\"><sup>[I]<\/sup><\/a><em>.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Ch.3 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><strong>Phonetics<\/strong> = characteristics of speech sounds<\/li>\n<li>Articulatory phonetics = how speech sounds are made<\/li>\n<li>Vocal folds\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Voiceless<\/strong> = e.g. [s], [f], when they are open and air passes unimpeded<\/li>\n<li><strong>Voiced<\/strong> = e.g. [z], [v], when they are drawn together, vibrating as air passes between<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Place of articulation\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Bilabials<\/strong> = (bi\/both + labia\/lips) e.g. [b] [m] [p]<\/li>\n<li><strong>Labiodentals<\/strong> = upper teeth and lower lips, e.g. [f] [v]<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dentals<\/strong> = e.g. &#8220;theta&#8221; [\u03b8] &#8220;eth&#8221;\u00a0[\u00f0]<\/li>\n<li><strong>Alveolar<\/strong>\u00a0= tongue tip at alveolar ridge, e.g. [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]<\/li>\n<li><strong>Palatals<\/strong> = produced with the tongue and hard palate, e.g. sh [\u0283] ch [\u02a7] j [\u02a4]<\/li>\n<li><strong>Velars<\/strong> = tongue against the soft palate (velum), e.g. [k] [g]<\/li>\n<li><strong>Glottals<\/strong>\u00a0= produced without active use of mouth, i.e. [h] (nb. voiceless sounds are produced with an open glottis &#8211; space between vocal folds).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Manner of articulation\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Stops<\/strong>\u00a0= by briefly stopping air stream, e.g. [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]<\/li>\n<li><strong>Frictives<\/strong> = blocking and pushing through air stream, e.g.\u00a0[f] [v] [\u03b8] [\u00f0] [s] [z]\u00a0[\u0283] [\u0292]<\/li>\n<li><strong>Affrictives<\/strong> = combine brief stop with obstructed release, e.g.\u00a0[\u02a7] [\u02a4]<\/li>\n<li><strong>Nasals<\/strong>\u00a0= e.g. [m] [n], nb. raised velum blocks nasal air flow except if lowered<\/li>\n<li><strong>Liquids<\/strong>\u00a0= [l] &#8211; &#8220;lateral liquid&#8221;, air flows around tongue as it points at mid alveolar ridge; [r] &#8211; tongue tip raised and curled back near the ridge<\/li>\n<li><strong>Glides<\/strong>\u00a0= involving tongue moving forward, e.g. [w] y [j], aka semi-vowels<\/li>\n<li><strong>Glottal stop<\/strong>\u00a0= represented as [?], when the glottis is briefly completely closed, e.g. in the middle of &#8220;Oh oh&#8221; or Cockney speech<\/li>\n<li><strong>Flap<\/strong>\u00a0= tongue tapping alveolar briefly, e.g. when saying &#8220;butter&#8221; as &#8220;budder&#8221;, the sound is represented as [D]\n<ul>\n<li>American English speakers tend to flap [t] and [d] consonants between vowels<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Vowels &#8211; described based on space in mouth and tongue elevation, per front to back, high to low\n<ul>\n<li>Relaxing pleasure vowels tend to be lower, which may require opening the mouth wider (e.g. <em>ho<\/em>, cf. <em>hi<\/em>)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Diphthongs<\/strong>\u00a0= two vowel combination, as vocal organs move from one position to another<\/li>\n<li>Nb. &#8220;shwa&#8221; [\u0259] = most common sound in English, e.g. word &#8220;a&#8221; or end of &#8220;the&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Ch.4 THE SOUND PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><strong>Phonology<\/strong> = description of the systems of speech sounds in a language, nb. is essentially concerned with the <em>idea<\/em>\u00a0of the sounds rather then physical articulation; the abstract set of sounds whose differentiation allows meaning to be distinguished.\n<ul>\n<li>Phoneme = a meaning distinguishing sound<\/li>\n<li>Phonemes are essentially contrastive, and this is the basis for a basic operational test of their existence, i.e. does exchanging sounds change the meaning<\/li>\n<li>Basis prediction is that sounds with similar features (e.g. bilabial), ie. members of a &#8220;<strong>natural class<\/strong>&#8220;, with have similar phonological behaviors (e.g. permissible sequences)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Phone<\/strong>\u00a0= sound type qua auditory (nb. many distinguishable phones are treated identically by a language, i.e. the various allophonic phones of a language&#8217;s phoneme)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Allophone<\/strong>\u00a0= set of all phones of a phoneme, these are distinguished by symbols, i.e. diacritics<\/li>\n<li><strong>Phonotactics<\/strong>\u00a0=\u00a0permitted arrangements of sounds<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>A\u00a0syllable\u00a0must contain a vowel (or diphthong), and its permissible patterns and &#8220;consonant clusters&#8221; described (e.g. CVC, CCVC).\n<ul>\n<li>Technically made up of <em>onset<\/em>\u00a0(consonant\/s) + <em>rhyme<\/em>, made of a <em>nucleus<\/em>\u00a0(vowel) + <em>coda<\/em>\u00a0(and following consonants). Can lack an onset\/coda; called &#8220;open&#8221; and &#8220;closed&#8217;.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Coarticulation = making one sound almost at the same time as the next sound\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Assimilation<\/strong> = when a feature of one sound is copied into the other, e.g. because of the voiceless [t], the normally voiced [v] becomes a voiceless [f] in &#8220;have to&#8221; as [h\u00e6ft\u0259]<\/li>\n<li><strong>Elision<\/strong> =\u00a0not pronouncing\u00a0a sound segment that might be present in the deliberately careful pronunciation\u00a0of a word in isolation\n<ul>\n<li>Often occurs to \/t\/ in consonant clusters, esp in the coda position<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Ch.5 WORD FORMATION<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><strong>Coinage<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Borrowing<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Claque<\/strong> = loan translation<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Compounding<\/strong> (e.g. wallpaper)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Blending<\/strong> = combining a beginning + end of words (e.g. telethon)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Clipping<\/strong> (e.g. fax)\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Hypocorism<\/strong> = clipping + &#8220;ee&#8221; sound, (e.g. telly), nb. popular in Australia (e.g. brekky)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Backformation<\/strong> = reduce one form to another, esp. noun to verb (creating e.g. televise, babysit)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Conversion<\/strong> = change form without reduction (e.g. bottled, see through [qua adj], ball park [qua adj])<\/li>\n<li><strong>Acronym<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Derivation<\/strong> = by use of affixes\n<ul>\n<li>Cf. Prefixes, suffixes, and infixes (more common in other languages, but cf. unfuckingbelievable)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Multiple processes<\/strong>, cf. &#8220;yuppie&#8221; is one one hand a hypocorism of its acronym, but was also formed via <em>analogy<\/em>\u00a0with hippie and yippie (which was a hypocorism of an acronym for young international party [during the time of Vietnam protests]).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Ch.6 MORPHOLOGY<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><strong>Morpheme<\/strong> = minimal unit of meaning or grammar\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Free<\/strong> morpheme = can stand by themselves, aka <strong>stem\u00a0<\/strong>when used with a bound morpheme\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Lexical<\/strong> morpheme\u00a0= content carrying, considered &#8220;open&#8221; since it is easy to add to these (e.g. &#8220;cat&#8221;)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Functional<\/strong> morpheme\u00a0= esp. conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns, considered &#8220;closed&#8221; since virtually never add new ones (e.g &#8220;and&#8221;)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Bound<\/strong> morpheme = can&#8217;t, are attached, including all affixes in English\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Derivational<\/strong> morphemes = used to make new words or new grammatical forms from a stem (e.g. &#8220;-ness&#8221; can add to &#8220;good&#8221;)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Inflectional<\/strong> morphemes = used to indicate aspect of grammar (i.e. plural, singular, past tense, comparative, possessive)\n<ul>\n<li>Nb. doesn&#8217;t change the grammatical category of a word<\/li>\n<li>Nb. a derivational affix is attached before an inflectional (e.g. &#8220;teach-er-s&#8221;)<\/li>\n<li>Noun + -\u2019s, -s<\/li>\n<li>Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en<\/li>\n<li>Adjective + -er, -est<\/li>\n<li>Some languages use <strong>reduplication\u00a0<\/strong>affixes, i.e. an affix that is a\u00a0repetition\u00a0of a particular part of the word<\/li>\n<li><strong>Suppletion<\/strong>\u00a0= the use of one word as the inflected form of another when the two are not cognate, often aka &#8220;irregular&#8221;\n<ul>\n<li>Cognate = words that have a common etymology<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Cf. <strong>bound stems<\/strong> &#8211; e.g. the second morpheme in <em>re-ceive<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Morph<\/strong>\u00a0= an actual form used to realize a morpheme\n<ul>\n<li>Cf. just like various phones are treated equivalently as a phoneme, so too&#8230;<\/li>\n<li><strong>Allomorph<\/strong> =\u00a0various morphs treated\u00a0equivalently\u00a0(e.g. &#8220;-s&#8221; and &#8220;-es&#8221;) for a morpheme (e.g. &#8220;plural&#8221;)<\/li>\n<li>Nb. morpheme &#8220;plural&#8221; can be added to various lexical morphemes, e.g. &#8220;bus&#8221; or &#8220;man&#8221; or &#8220;sheep&#8221;, but with different morphs, including &#8220;-es&#8221;, vowel change and zero morph<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Ch.7 GRAMMAR<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><strong>Grammar<\/strong> = describing the structure of a sentence so as to account for permissible sequences<\/li>\n<li><strong>Traditional<\/strong> grammar is based on classical Greek and Latin studies,\n<ul>\n<li>Including their definitions for the <strong>parts of speech<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Noun<\/li>\n<li>Article (e.g. a, the)<\/li>\n<li>Adjective<\/li>\n<li>Verb<\/li>\n<li>Adverb<\/li>\n<li>Prepositions = words for providing information about time (e.g. at) place (e.g. in) or other connections (e.g. with)<\/li>\n<li>Pronoun<\/li>\n<li>Conjunction = words used to make connections\/relations between events (e.g. and, because, when)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Traditional grammar also references grammatical <strong>categories<\/strong>, and determines which terms have <strong>agreement<\/strong> with others\n<ul>\n<li>Number = i.e. plural, singular<\/li>\n<li>Person = distinction between first, second, third person<\/li>\n<li>Tense<\/li>\n<li>Voice = active or passive voice, e.g. x loves versus x is loved<\/li>\n<li>Gender<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Nb. despite the fact that these matter more, create more variance, for Latin than English<\/li>\n<li>Prescriptive grammar = e.g. don&#8217;t split infinitives, don&#8217;t end sentences with a proposition\n<ul>\n<li>Cf. &#8220;to boldly go&#8221;, in Latin you cannot split an infinitive<\/li>\n<li>Cf. linguistic etiquette versus breaking a Latin rule<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Versus &#8220;<strong>descriptive approach<\/strong>&#8221; = attempt to <em>find<\/em> regular structures\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Structural analysis<\/strong> = re. distribution of forms\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Test frame<\/strong> = sentences with empty slots, to test what forms are allowed, consequentially defining grammatical categories<\/li>\n<li>Nb. shows that pronouns are not just a type of noun, but a type of noun phrase<\/li>\n<li>Cf. <strong>hypercorrection<\/strong> = a non-standard usage that results from over application of a perceived grammatical rule<\/li>\n<li><strong>Determiner<\/strong> = expresses the reference of a noun or noun phrase\n<ul>\n<li>Article (the, a)<\/li>\n<li>Demonstrative (this, that)<\/li>\n<li>Possessive (my, their)<\/li>\n<li>Quantifier (many, few, several)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Transivity<\/strong> = property of verbs relating to whether they can take direct objects and how many\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Transitive<\/strong> = e.g. throw, injure, kiss<\/li>\n<li><strong>Intransitive<\/strong> = e.g. fall, sit<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ditransitive<\/strong> = can take two objects (nb. is not included in traditional grammar)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ambitransitive<\/strong> = can be used as both transitive and intransitive (nb. is not included in traditional grammar)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Constituent analysis<\/strong> = determine how a sentence&#8217;s constituents combine and are combinable\n<ul>\n<li>Method can use [brackets] to show constituent structures, and which may be labeled in superscript, e.g. ^S[ ^NP[The dog] ^VP[loved ^NP[the girl] ] ]<\/li>\n<li>Art = article (e.g. the); N = noun; NP = noun phrase; V = verb; VP = verb phrase; S = sentence, PN = proper noun, Adj = adjective; Pro = pronoun; Adv = adverb; Prep = preposition; PP = prepositional phrase, Aux = auxiliary verb<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Ch.8 SYNTAX<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><strong>Syntax<\/strong> = the structure and ordering of components in a sentence in a language (from Gk. &#8220;a putting together&#8221;, &#8220;arrangement&#8221;)\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Generative grammar<\/strong> = rules that produce all and only grammatical sentences<\/li>\n<li><strong>Surface structure<\/strong> = the syntactic form<\/li>\n<li><strong>Deep structure<\/strong> = the abstract form based on the constituent forms (e.g. NP+V+NP)<\/li>\n<li>Nb. &#8220;Charlie broke the window&#8221; and &#8220;The window was broken by Charlie&#8221; have different surface, but the same deep, structures<\/li>\n<li><strong>Structural ambiguity<\/strong> = when the same surface structure can have different deep structures (e.g. &#8220;Annie bumped into a man with an umbrella&#8221;)<\/li>\n<li>Tree diagram = often used to represent syntax<\/li>\n<li>\u2192= consists of, rewrites as\n<ul>\n<li>E.g. NP\u00a0\u2192 Art (Adj) N<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>( ) = optional constituent<\/li>\n<li>{ } = only one of must be selected\n<ul>\n<li>E.g. NP\u00a0\u2192\u00a0{Art N, Pro, PN}<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Auxiliary verb<\/strong> = &#8220;helping verb&#8221;, lexical rule {can, should, would, will, would}<\/li>\n<li><strong>Complement phrase<\/strong> (CP) = rewrites as a complementizer and a sentence, i.e. CP\u00a0\u2192\u00a0C S\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Complementizer<\/strong> (C) = the role of which is to introduce a complement phrase, e.g. &#8220;that&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Phrase structure rules<\/strong>, incl:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ol>\n<li>S\u00a0\u2192\u00a0NP VP<\/li>\n<li>NP\u00a0\u2192\u00a0{Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN}<\/li>\n<li>VP\u00a0\u2192\u00a0V NP \u00a0(PP) (Adj)<\/li>\n<li>PP\u00a0\u2192\u00a0Prep NP<\/li>\n<li>S\u00a0\u2192\u00a0NP VP<\/li>\n<li>VP\u00a0\u2192\u00a0V CP<\/li>\n<li>CP\u00a0\u2192\u00a0C S<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Recursion<\/strong> = property of sentences to use the same rules multiple times<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Nb. the phrase structures rules #5-#6 allow for recursion, e.g. S[ NP[Mary VP[ V[knew CP[ C[<em>that<\/em>\u00a0S[ NP[George] VP[knew Mary] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Lexical rules<\/strong> = specify which words can be used to rewrite phrase constituents, e.g. PN\u00a0\u2192\u00a0{Mary, George}\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Movement rule<\/strong> = used to move structures around in a sentence, e.g. to change it from a declaration into a question<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Linguistic <strong>competence<\/strong> = per Chomsky, the ideal system of knowledge underpinning a user&#8217;s language, removed from limitations (e.g. memory, distraction)\n<ul>\n<li>Cf. linguistic <strong>performance<\/strong> = per Chomsky, the actual use of language by its speakers<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Nb. rule for using wanna\/want-to, only in cases where the phrase &#8220;want to&#8221; does not interrupt a target is &#8220;wanna&#8221; permitted\n<ul>\n<li>E.g. Who do you wanna visit, cf. You want to visit someone<\/li>\n<li>E.g. *Who you wanna look after your pets, cf. You want <em>someone<\/em>\u00a0to look after your pets<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Ch.9 SEMANTICS<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><strong>Semantics<\/strong> = the study of the general meaning of words or phrases\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Conceptual meaning<\/strong> = basically dictionary definition<\/li>\n<li><strong>Associative meaning<\/strong> = basically the words that come to mind<\/li>\n<li><strong>Semantic features<\/strong> = the conceptual features of terms (e.g. horse is +animate, +adult, -human)\n<ul>\n<li>This allows defining permitted terms in sentences, e.g. only animate nouns may use the verb &#8220;eat&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Semantic roles<\/strong> = the roles played by words within situations in a sentence\n<ul>\n<li>Agent = that performs the action<\/li>\n<li>Theme = that is affected by the action<\/li>\n<li>Instrument<\/li>\n<li>Experiencer<\/li>\n<li>Location<\/li>\n<li>Source = where entity moves from<\/li>\n<li>Goal = where the entity moves to<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Lexical relations<\/strong> = between words\n<ul>\n<li>Synonymy = similar meanings<\/li>\n<li>Antonymy = opposite meanings\n<ul>\n<li>Gradable antonyms = can be compared (e.g. older), and the negation of one does not necessitate the other (e.g. new\/old)<\/li>\n<li>Non-gradable antonyms = not normally compared, and negation implies the other (e.g. dead\/alive)\n<ul>\n<li>Reversives = antonyms that mean the reverse of each other (e.g. dress\/undress, enter\/exit)<\/li>\n<li>Marked\/unmarked = the unmarked is the one of the pair normally used in questions (e.g. old is unmarked given &#8220;How old are you&#8221; and not &#8220;How young&#8221;)<\/li>\n<li>Converses = subtype that are pairs that relate to each other from opposite points of view (e.g. win\/lose, parent\/child) (aka relational\/reciprocal antonyms)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Hyponymy = the meaning of one is included in the other (e.g. flower\/rose &#8211; flower is contained in the definition of rose, therefore rose is a hyponym of flower)\n<ul>\n<li>Superordinate terms = e.g. flower\/animal relative to rose\/dog<\/li>\n<li>Co-hyponyms = those that share the same superordinate term (e.g. horse\/dog relative to animal)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Prototypes = the characteristic instance of a category (e.g. chair, rather than bench, for furniture)<\/li>\n<li>Homophones = same pronounciation<\/li>\n<li>Homonyms = same spelling, nb. evolved by different histories<\/li>\n<li>Polysemy = same spelling\/form but multiple related meanings (e.g. foot, as of a person, and of a mountain)<\/li>\n<li>Metonymy = using one word to refer to another word with which it has a close relation (e.g. white house for president, wheels for car)\n<ul>\n<li>Synecdoche is a subtype<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Transferred epithet (aka hypallage) = an adjective attached to a noun (esp. inanimate) yet that is describing something else (esp. a person), e.g. sleepless night, quiet cup of coffee<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Collocation = the frequency of words co-occuring\n<ul>\n<li>Corpus linguistics = the study of language by deriving rules based on sample sets<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Ch.10 PRAGMATICS<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Pragmatics<\/strong>\u00a0= the &#8220;invisible&#8221; meaning that we recognize is meant even when not explicit<\/li>\n<li>Context\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Linguistic contex<\/strong>t, aka <strong>co-text<\/strong> = surrounding words<\/li>\n<li><strong>Physical context<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Deixis expressions<\/strong> = terms that linguistically point\n<ul>\n<li>To things (it, this, these boxes)<\/li>\n<li>People, aka people deixis (him, them, those idiots)<\/li>\n<li>Spatial deixis (here, there, near that)<\/li>\n<li>Temporal deixis (now, then, last week)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Reference<\/strong> = using words to refer, i.e. for listeners to identify something\n<ul>\n<li>Even a specific reference, e.g. &#8220;John,&#8221; is technically a range, albeit practically limited by context<\/li>\n<li><strong>Inference<\/strong> = the listener adding information to understand a reference, e.g. if X is an author then X can be used to reference a copy of a book by that author, for &#8220;Pass me your Chomsky&#8221;<\/li>\n<li><strong>Anaphora<\/strong> = a case of referring to an initial introduction, cf. an anaphoric expression is the actual repeated instances\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Antecedent<\/strong> = the first mention<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Presupposition<\/strong> = what a speaker assumes is true\/known\n<ul>\n<li>&#8220;Constancy under negation&#8221; test = the presupposition should remain the same even if the sentence is negated (e.g. I still have a car no matter if &#8220;My car is a wreck&#8221; or &#8220;My car is not wreck&#8221;)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Speech acts = the action performed by a speaker with an utterance\n<ul>\n<li>Did you eat the pizza? <strong>Interrogative<\/strong> Question<\/li>\n<li>Eat the pizza (please)! <strong>Imperative<\/strong> Command (Request)<\/li>\n<li>You ate the pizza. <strong>Declarative<\/strong> Statement<\/li>\n<li><strong>Direct speech act<\/strong> = using a structure (e.g. interrogative) for its direct function (e.g. question)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Indirect speech act<\/strong> = using a structure with an indirect function (e.g. the interrogative &#8220;Can you pass the salt&#8221; for a request function)<\/li>\n<li>Nb. often used because considered more polite<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Politeness = \u00a0showing awareness and consideration of\u00a0another person\u2019s face\n<ul>\n<li>Face =\u00a0in pragmatics, is your public self-image<\/li>\n<li>Face-threatening act =\u00a0something that represents a threat to another person\u2019s self-image\n<ul>\n<li>E.g. a direct imperative command may threaten another&#8217;s social status and hence face<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Face-saving act =\u00a0something that lessens the possible threat to another\u2019s face<\/li>\n<li>Negative face = the need to be\u00a0independent and free from imposition\n<ul>\n<li>E.g. a face-saving act emphasizing negative face can account for imposition (e.g. &#8220;Sorry to bother you&#8230;&#8221;)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Positive face = the need to be connected, to\u00a0belong, to be a member of the group\n<ul>\n<li>E.g. a face-saving act emphasizing positive face can account for solidarity (e.g. &#8220;We both have the same problem&#8230;&#8221;)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Nb. very culturally dependent, e.g. some cultures consider directness more polite than others<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><div class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#2341f8\"><\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><a href=\"#_ftnrefI\" name=\"_ftnI\"><sup>[I]<\/sup><\/a> <em>&#8220;<strong>George Yule<\/strong> (born 20 March 1947) is a British linguist. He is known for writing introductory books on different branches of linguistics. His book <strong>The Study of Language<\/strong> is a best-selling introductory book taught in universities worldwide and translated into several languages&#8221;. For further details see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Yule_(linguist)\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Yule_(linguist)<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Editorial notes: The content below is Shai&#8217;s summary of &#8220;The Study of Language&#8221; (4th Edition) by George Yule[I]. Ch.3 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE Phonetics = characteristics of speech sounds Articulatory phonetics = how speech sounds are made Vocal folds Voiceless = e.g. [s], [f], when they are open and air passes unimpeded Voiced = e.g. [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_feature_clip_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":false,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","default_image_id":0,"font":"","enabled":false},"version":2},"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false},"categories":[159,198,242,266,83],"tags":[],"metadata":[171,101],"class_list":["post-2875","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-all-posts","category-book-review","category-evernote-entries","category-language","category-study","metadata-editors-footnotes","metadata-editor_notes"],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":2880,"url":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/2014\/08\/08\/writings-systems-an-introduction-to-their-linguistic-analysis-by-florian-coulmas\/","url_meta":{"origin":2875,"position":0},"title":"Writings Systems &#8211; an introduction to their linguistic analysis by Florian Coulmas","author":"Pala","date":"August 8, 2014","format":false,"excerpt":"Editorial notes: The content below is what looks like the beginning of a collection of quotes and thoughts gathered from Florian Coulmas' [I] Writings Systems; an introduction to their linguistic analysis\"[II]. Chapter 1 Aristotle \"On Interpretation\" : Words spoken are symbols of affections or impressions of the soul; written words\u00a0are\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;All Posts&quot;","block_context":{"text":"All Posts","link":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/all-posts\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":2689,"url":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/2013\/11\/19\/tuesday-november-19-2013\/","url_meta":{"origin":2875,"position":1},"title":"Tuesday November 19, 2013","author":"Pala","date":"November 19, 2013","format":false,"excerpt":"Here are some things that I wrote. Project \"Project\" [Here I am describing an intention to focus activities by categories defined as projects]. A project can be anything and there can be any number, but practical considerations will double as reasonable constraints in both those instances. A study of a\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;All Posts&quot;","block_context":{"text":"All Posts","link":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/all-posts\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":1263,"url":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/2017\/01\/18\/a-prolegomena-to-a-prolegomena-to-a-study\/","url_meta":{"origin":2875,"position":2},"title":"A Prolegomena to a Prolegomena to a Study","author":"Pala","date":"January 18, 2017","format":false,"excerpt":"{24\/10\/2016} Even approaching the approaching of this thing requires consideration. {24\/10\/2016} The goal is a proper study. The means is to know how to study. The precursor is to wonder how to know how to study. More premises: The subject of the goal is an Aleph. (#Borges) A premise of\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;All Posts&quot;","block_context":{"text":"All Posts","link":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/all-posts\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/06\/kisspng-black-and-white-monochrome-grey-divider-5ab8b367372326.6136383115220539912259-300x15.png?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":661,"url":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/2016\/05\/19\/first-impressions-of-r\/","url_meta":{"origin":2875,"position":3},"title":"First impressions of R","author":"Pala","date":"May 19, 2016","format":false,"excerpt":"I've only been studying R[I] for a few weeks. It's my second programming language, and I'm only a beginner at my first - python. R is strangely strange. It looks a bit like java with all its brackets, but then goes and uses \"<-\" for designating variables, as if the\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;All Posts&quot;","block_context":{"text":"All Posts","link":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/all-posts\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":1739,"url":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/2010\/12\/04\/the-origin-of-speech-2\/","url_meta":{"origin":2875,"position":4},"title":"The Origin of Speech","author":"Pala","date":"December 4, 2010","format":false,"excerpt":"The Origin of Speech\u00a0is the title of an article published in\u00a0Scientific American\u00a0in\u00a01960\u00a0by\u00a0Charles F. Hockett. It is often cited, even today, for its suggestion that there are 13 \"design-features\" shared by all\u00a0languages. The 13 design-features of language: Vocal-auditory\u00a0channel\u00a0\u2013 While it is true that we have\u00a0cultural adaptations\u00a0that don\u2019t require vocalizing\u00a0communication\u00a0\u2013 sign language,\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;All Posts&quot;","block_context":{"text":"All Posts","link":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/all-posts\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":2740,"url":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/2013\/10\/05\/saturday-october-5-2013\/","url_meta":{"origin":2875,"position":5},"title":"Saturday October 5, 2013","author":"Pala","date":"October 5, 2013","format":false,"excerpt":"Editorial notes: The Evernote journal entry written on this day contains material (see the second paragraph in the post below) that is fundamental and pivotal to understanding Shai\u2019s life philosophy. I decided to deviate from one of my editorial principles and highlighted it for ease of reading. While the point\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;All Posts&quot;","block_context":{"text":"All Posts","link":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/all-posts\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]}],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/padotI-Kn","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2875","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2875"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2875\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2875"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2875"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2875"},{"taxonomy":"metadata","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thetravellerslastjourney.com\/shai\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/metadata?post=2875"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}